paper abstracts
Details of the keynote speakers' talks can be found here.
Panel 1: Ethics for a Changing Environment
Anthony Floyd (Religions and Theology, University of Manchester)
The Time of Creation in the Theology of Jürgen Moltmann; Humanity and the Future of our Environment
The chronology implicit in the language of environmental disaster besieges us from all directions. Members of the International Panel for Climate Change tell us that the problem is too large for science to grapple with and the problem may be irreversible while popular culture bombards us with various cinematic depictions of environmental apocalypse. The message is clear: we are heading for disaster. But how helpful is this message? Apocalyptic language can easily stunt action and preclude any productive discussion of the problematic ways in which we interact with our environments. Moreover, it has the potential to halt discussions on ways in which the future can be different from the past. If we are already ‘too late’ then why seek change at all? Jürgen Moltmann’s theology is deeply concerned with the importance of the future as a resource for hope. Time, as a concept, is central to his doctrine of creation, his eschatology and his soteriology. For Moltmann, time sets the limits of humanity’s influence and stresses our contingency upon God’s grace. As such it stands as a counterpoint to both hubris and pessimism. In this paper I will examine his understanding of the relationship between a philosophy of time and a theology of time. In so doing, I aim to draw out themes and resources which help us re-examine our relationship with the environment and move beyond blunt, apocalyptic statements regarding the future.
Anna Huxley (Religions and Theology, University of Manchester)
The influence of Religious Non-Governmental Organisations (RNGOs) on climate change policy at the UN.
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) act as a bridge between society, government and policy makers. Religious NGOs (RNGOs) have been influential in policy formation and implementation within the United Nations (UN), especially regarding environmental issues. Many RNGOs are key players across the globe and are highly influential in development and providing humanitarian aid. This paper seeks to examine the impact and influence of RNGOs on climate change policy at the UN.
The role of RNGOs in the environmental debate did not become particularly influential until the 1990’s. The earth summit was the first significant effort by religious groups to be involved in advocacy for climate justice in international politics. The 1992 Earth Summit, was the largest ever gathering of heads of state and there was a wide presence of RNGOs. The Earth Summit led to the establishment of international agreements on development and the environment, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. Since the Earth Summit RNGOs have played a greater role within the UN. However, examination into the impacts that RNGOs have had on climate change policy are needed.
There is a gap in literature regarding RNGOs in general, and even less regarding their involvement in the politics of climate change. However, it is clear from the existing literature that RNGOs deserve further investigation to gain an understanding of the role they play in the UN and their influence on climate change policy. With many academics of religion and theology commenting on the unique contribution religion brings to the debate on climate change, the need for an evaluation into how RNGOs are influencing climate change policy seems paramount. This paper sets to offer a critique, from the literature available, of the role of RNGOs in impacting and influencing climate change policy at the UN.
Andrew Brower-Latz (Theology and Religion, University of Durham)
'May I watch TV or must I help the environment? Supererogation and imperfect duties as alternative structures for the demandingness of environmental ethics.'
The idea of going beyond the law has a venerable place in Jewish ethics, as does going the extra mile in Christian ethics. Assuming we have some kind of responsibility not to harm, or to minimise harm to, the environment, a demandingness objection emerges against these kinds of religious ethics. That is: do they ask too much of us? This paper examines question of how best to think about ethical demandingness through juxtaposing two categories for doing so: imperfect duties and supererogation. The Kantian concept of imperfect duties requires us to adopt an end, fulfilled by acts, some of which should sometimes be performed, but the omission of any one of which is not a violation of duty. Supererogation names actions that are good to do but not wrong not to do; they are, therefore, “beyond the call of duty”. This paper explains Kant’s notion of imperfect duties and how the category could apply to environmental ethics; it repeats the process for supererogation. It then look at some reasons to doubt the usefulness of supererogation in the field of environmental ethics. The tentative conclusion is that imperfect duties are better than supererogation, generally and in the case of environmental ethics, for accounting for demandingness in ethical theory.
The Time of Creation in the Theology of Jürgen Moltmann; Humanity and the Future of our Environment
The chronology implicit in the language of environmental disaster besieges us from all directions. Members of the International Panel for Climate Change tell us that the problem is too large for science to grapple with and the problem may be irreversible while popular culture bombards us with various cinematic depictions of environmental apocalypse. The message is clear: we are heading for disaster. But how helpful is this message? Apocalyptic language can easily stunt action and preclude any productive discussion of the problematic ways in which we interact with our environments. Moreover, it has the potential to halt discussions on ways in which the future can be different from the past. If we are already ‘too late’ then why seek change at all? Jürgen Moltmann’s theology is deeply concerned with the importance of the future as a resource for hope. Time, as a concept, is central to his doctrine of creation, his eschatology and his soteriology. For Moltmann, time sets the limits of humanity’s influence and stresses our contingency upon God’s grace. As such it stands as a counterpoint to both hubris and pessimism. In this paper I will examine his understanding of the relationship between a philosophy of time and a theology of time. In so doing, I aim to draw out themes and resources which help us re-examine our relationship with the environment and move beyond blunt, apocalyptic statements regarding the future.
Anna Huxley (Religions and Theology, University of Manchester)
The influence of Religious Non-Governmental Organisations (RNGOs) on climate change policy at the UN.
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) act as a bridge between society, government and policy makers. Religious NGOs (RNGOs) have been influential in policy formation and implementation within the United Nations (UN), especially regarding environmental issues. Many RNGOs are key players across the globe and are highly influential in development and providing humanitarian aid. This paper seeks to examine the impact and influence of RNGOs on climate change policy at the UN.
The role of RNGOs in the environmental debate did not become particularly influential until the 1990’s. The earth summit was the first significant effort by religious groups to be involved in advocacy for climate justice in international politics. The 1992 Earth Summit, was the largest ever gathering of heads of state and there was a wide presence of RNGOs. The Earth Summit led to the establishment of international agreements on development and the environment, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. Since the Earth Summit RNGOs have played a greater role within the UN. However, examination into the impacts that RNGOs have had on climate change policy are needed.
There is a gap in literature regarding RNGOs in general, and even less regarding their involvement in the politics of climate change. However, it is clear from the existing literature that RNGOs deserve further investigation to gain an understanding of the role they play in the UN and their influence on climate change policy. With many academics of religion and theology commenting on the unique contribution religion brings to the debate on climate change, the need for an evaluation into how RNGOs are influencing climate change policy seems paramount. This paper sets to offer a critique, from the literature available, of the role of RNGOs in impacting and influencing climate change policy at the UN.
Andrew Brower-Latz (Theology and Religion, University of Durham)
'May I watch TV or must I help the environment? Supererogation and imperfect duties as alternative structures for the demandingness of environmental ethics.'
The idea of going beyond the law has a venerable place in Jewish ethics, as does going the extra mile in Christian ethics. Assuming we have some kind of responsibility not to harm, or to minimise harm to, the environment, a demandingness objection emerges against these kinds of religious ethics. That is: do they ask too much of us? This paper examines question of how best to think about ethical demandingness through juxtaposing two categories for doing so: imperfect duties and supererogation. The Kantian concept of imperfect duties requires us to adopt an end, fulfilled by acts, some of which should sometimes be performed, but the omission of any one of which is not a violation of duty. Supererogation names actions that are good to do but not wrong not to do; they are, therefore, “beyond the call of duty”. This paper explains Kant’s notion of imperfect duties and how the category could apply to environmental ethics; it repeats the process for supererogation. It then look at some reasons to doubt the usefulness of supererogation in the field of environmental ethics. The tentative conclusion is that imperfect duties are better than supererogation, generally and in the case of environmental ethics, for accounting for demandingness in ethical theory.
Panel 2: Popular Culture and Religious Expression
Natalie Armitage (English and American Studies, University of Manchester)
When Religion and Witchcraft Become Synonymous: the implications of the negative imagery of Afro-Caribbean religion in popular culture
Throughout the twentieth century the portrayal of Vodou, or Voodoo as it became more commonly known in these instances, in popular culture, such as film and literature, has been inherently negative and imbued with connotations of witchcraft and Satanism. Since their inception during the Colonial era of American slavery, the nature of Afro-Caribbean religions, such as Vodou, Obeah and Santeria, have been steeped in negative imagery by the uninitiated. Many believed that it was the use of such ‘primitive’ Vodou rites that aided slaves in their various uprisings throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; the success of the Haitian Revolution, with the supposed importance of Vodou priest Boukman Dutty in instigating the rebellion, only cementing this perception. Afro-Caribbean religious practice was situated as primitive, barbaric and associating with the Satanic.
Examples of this prevailing negative imagery are still commonplace today. The word Voodoo seems synonymous with witchcraft and examples of malevolent voodoo sorcerers and the supposedly more benign ‘magical negro’ are still recognisable tropes. This paper seeks to explore why, when so many other aspects of racial stereotyping are commonly challenged, the negative imagery surrounding Afro-Caribbean religions and witchcraft is allowed to continue and what this implies about the current perception of race and the religious practice of Vodou within America today.
Anja Pogacnik (Religious Studies, University of Edinburgh)
Popular Culture as Religion: Apple Inc. as a Case Study
In this paper I will utilise Durkheim’s definition of religion to analyse Apple as an example of popular culture functioning as religion and forming a new, fluid, eclectic type of religiosity for some of its devotees.
Durkheim’s four elements of religion – community, beliefs, sacred, and rituals – will serve as the foundation in interpreting the religious phenomena surrounding Apple. Community gathered around this consumer electronics company is an example of a brand community, which centres around a branded good or service, while still preserving the defining features of a community. Apple’s community bases its beliefs on notions of individuality, creativity, freedom, and counterculture and this system of beliefs is supported by a mythos surrounding Apple’s history and Steve Jobs’ life. The most sacred thing in the world of Apple religiosity is the brand itself. It acts as a symbol combining Apple’s philosophy, its mythological history, and Jobs’ prophetic character and its sacredness is protected by the taboo of criticism. Apple products act as religious fetishes to Apple devotees and Apple stores function as their temples, both offering a temporary escape from everyday life and transferring Apple fans to ‘the Apple world’. Followers engage in public pilgrimages to store openings and Apple conferences, and perform private rituals of product unboxing. They combine all these elements to re-enchant their worlds and infuse a seemingly secular entity with religious importance.
Jess Allen (Drama, University of Manchester)
'Drop in the Ocean': (re)framing an eco-activist performance through/as religious gesture
'Drop in the Ocean' is a six-day, solo, eco-activist walking performance in six concentric circles, performed around an accompanying installation. Carrying water in buckets on a milkmaid’s yoke, the performer invites the strangers she meets to make a wish, by placing their hand in the water of one bucket, taking a stone and transferring it to the other. In between, she asks them to hold the stone in their wet hand while she recites a hymn to water: a sonorous litany of how we might celebrate water in all its guises from the domestic to the sublime. In an era of ecological crisis characterised by disconnection and dichotomy – between, for example, our abstract understanding of environmental problems, and our everyday, embodied responses to them – this is a homeopathic attempt to facilitate sensual re-engagement with the natural world.
'Drop' was first performed in October 2013 around an installation housed at All Saints Church, Hereford: an unlikely setting for the work of an atheist artist for whom environmentalism had swiftly replaced (faltering) religious belief in early teenage. Ever since, I had been in denial about the not-insignificant parallels between environmentalism and religion and how they manifest in everyday behaviours: the self-denial, limitation, guilt that living by a set of (conscientiously-observed) ethical principles gives rise to. But working with the church to ensure this piece was sympathetic to their space, I was forced to confront how much of my creative practice was already framed by gestures of ritual, sacrifice, pilgrimage and hope as mechanisms of making activist commitment legible. Just as Christianity appropriated nature symbols from the pagan tradition, I consider here how – in a neat inversion – a secular eco-activist performance practice could be (re)framed in terms of religious symbols and behaviours, to facilitate (re)connection to ‘nature’ in a climate-changed future.
When Religion and Witchcraft Become Synonymous: the implications of the negative imagery of Afro-Caribbean religion in popular culture
Throughout the twentieth century the portrayal of Vodou, or Voodoo as it became more commonly known in these instances, in popular culture, such as film and literature, has been inherently negative and imbued with connotations of witchcraft and Satanism. Since their inception during the Colonial era of American slavery, the nature of Afro-Caribbean religions, such as Vodou, Obeah and Santeria, have been steeped in negative imagery by the uninitiated. Many believed that it was the use of such ‘primitive’ Vodou rites that aided slaves in their various uprisings throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; the success of the Haitian Revolution, with the supposed importance of Vodou priest Boukman Dutty in instigating the rebellion, only cementing this perception. Afro-Caribbean religious practice was situated as primitive, barbaric and associating with the Satanic.
Examples of this prevailing negative imagery are still commonplace today. The word Voodoo seems synonymous with witchcraft and examples of malevolent voodoo sorcerers and the supposedly more benign ‘magical negro’ are still recognisable tropes. This paper seeks to explore why, when so many other aspects of racial stereotyping are commonly challenged, the negative imagery surrounding Afro-Caribbean religions and witchcraft is allowed to continue and what this implies about the current perception of race and the religious practice of Vodou within America today.
Anja Pogacnik (Religious Studies, University of Edinburgh)
Popular Culture as Religion: Apple Inc. as a Case Study
In this paper I will utilise Durkheim’s definition of religion to analyse Apple as an example of popular culture functioning as religion and forming a new, fluid, eclectic type of religiosity for some of its devotees.
Durkheim’s four elements of religion – community, beliefs, sacred, and rituals – will serve as the foundation in interpreting the religious phenomena surrounding Apple. Community gathered around this consumer electronics company is an example of a brand community, which centres around a branded good or service, while still preserving the defining features of a community. Apple’s community bases its beliefs on notions of individuality, creativity, freedom, and counterculture and this system of beliefs is supported by a mythos surrounding Apple’s history and Steve Jobs’ life. The most sacred thing in the world of Apple religiosity is the brand itself. It acts as a symbol combining Apple’s philosophy, its mythological history, and Jobs’ prophetic character and its sacredness is protected by the taboo of criticism. Apple products act as religious fetishes to Apple devotees and Apple stores function as their temples, both offering a temporary escape from everyday life and transferring Apple fans to ‘the Apple world’. Followers engage in public pilgrimages to store openings and Apple conferences, and perform private rituals of product unboxing. They combine all these elements to re-enchant their worlds and infuse a seemingly secular entity with religious importance.
Jess Allen (Drama, University of Manchester)
'Drop in the Ocean': (re)framing an eco-activist performance through/as religious gesture
'Drop in the Ocean' is a six-day, solo, eco-activist walking performance in six concentric circles, performed around an accompanying installation. Carrying water in buckets on a milkmaid’s yoke, the performer invites the strangers she meets to make a wish, by placing their hand in the water of one bucket, taking a stone and transferring it to the other. In between, she asks them to hold the stone in their wet hand while she recites a hymn to water: a sonorous litany of how we might celebrate water in all its guises from the domestic to the sublime. In an era of ecological crisis characterised by disconnection and dichotomy – between, for example, our abstract understanding of environmental problems, and our everyday, embodied responses to them – this is a homeopathic attempt to facilitate sensual re-engagement with the natural world.
'Drop' was first performed in October 2013 around an installation housed at All Saints Church, Hereford: an unlikely setting for the work of an atheist artist for whom environmentalism had swiftly replaced (faltering) religious belief in early teenage. Ever since, I had been in denial about the not-insignificant parallels between environmentalism and religion and how they manifest in everyday behaviours: the self-denial, limitation, guilt that living by a set of (conscientiously-observed) ethical principles gives rise to. But working with the church to ensure this piece was sympathetic to their space, I was forced to confront how much of my creative practice was already framed by gestures of ritual, sacrifice, pilgrimage and hope as mechanisms of making activist commitment legible. Just as Christianity appropriated nature symbols from the pagan tradition, I consider here how – in a neat inversion – a secular eco-activist performance practice could be (re)framed in terms of religious symbols and behaviours, to facilitate (re)connection to ‘nature’ in a climate-changed future.
Panel 3: Narrative, Land, Nation
Rachel Winchcombe (History, University of Manchester)
The Noachic Tradition and the Biblical Dispersal of Mankind: Explaining Amerindian Origins in Sixteenth-Century England
The discovery of America has been seen by some historians as a watershed moment in history, a moment in which Old World knowledge was rendered redundant and obsolete, being eventually replaced with empiricism, rational thought, and the onset of ‘Enlightenment’ thinking. This paper will challenge this vision of a linear progression in European understandings of America by analysing theories of American origins found in early modern print culture. Reconciling the existence of America with the biblical narrative of the dispersal of mankind was a primary concern for Europeans describing the New World in the first century after discovery. From the premise that all mankind was descended from the three sons of Noah, a premise that was undeniable in early modern Christian thought, a variety of theories developed that attempted to explain how the Amerindians had come to be on an unknown continent and, crucially, how they could be connected to the peoples of the oikoumene. These theories could be based on Old World knowledge, derived from scripture, such as identifying the natives of the New World as descendants of King Solomon, or innovative, taking into account the empirical evidence found in the New World, such as the idea that the people of America had crossed to the continent via a land mass from Asia. I will explore, therefore, how explanations of Amerindian origins highlight an inherent tension in early European descriptions of America; the power of the old and the pull of the new. I will argue, through analysing theories of Amerindian origins, that the reception of America into European thought was a complex mix of Old World retention and New World innovation, rather than a neat linear process of new ideas replacing old.
Miguel Torres García (Human Geography, University of Manchester)
Assembling and disassembling urban religious practice in 18th-century Seville
At the beginning of the 18th century the city of Seville, Spain, envisaged a gloomy outlook, having lost the monopoly of Indian trade, and never having fully recovered from the 1649 plague and its dire consequences. A shrinking population withdrew into an ensemble of parochial spaces and exacerbated religious practice as a number of natural disasters ensued, culminating on 1755 Lisbon Earthquake which strongly affected its economy and built fabric. The earthquake marked a turning point in the development of enlightened ideals; shortly after, reforms were devised for the city within a wider context of liberal logics inception into Spanish territory. A great deal of the reforms fostered by the new progressive political elite focused on removing religious referents and re-classifying urban space socially and functionally, thus de- and re-territorialising it according to rationalist ideals. Their initiatives mirrored those of the Catholic Church to a great extent, substituting an old set of socio-spatial boundaries by a new one, and devising alternative modes of performance in order to completely reshape the public sphere. The enlightened experiment failed in Seville and Spain, and its proponents fell into dishonour and prosecution.
This paper characterises Seville’s urban space during the times of deep religiosity caused by pessimism and despair, describing how practical and performative constructions were targeted and dismantled by the enlightened. It also considers their initiatives as alternative means of control, and the overall confrontation as a power struggle largely fought in a symbolic arena with a translation over actual urban space. Enlightened Despotism failed precisely because of its inherent refusal to engage the base population in their socio-spatial project; this setback would have an effect in further socio-economic lagging in Seville and Spain at large.
Ashley Scott-Harris (French, Queen's University Belfast)
When contemporary authors discuss religion in a secular state: French novelist Michel Houellebecq versus Islam
The case of French laÏcité (secularism) does not imply the absence of the sacred in public life, but rather, as Etienne Balibar has argued, the 'sacralisation of the state'.[1] Issues of migration and displacement have ensued for Muslims who are marginalised in the War on Terror age, for example through the official banning of the full veil. It appears ironic that Islamic practice is threatening to France, a secular state with a non-practicing Catholic majority. However, there is a tension between the secular state and the religious, principally Arab Muslim, citizens. My paper will explore how race and religion have become to appear synonymous in French society. Indeed, the 'sacralised' state opposes Islamic expression alongside Arab immigration and multiculturalism. I will discuss how author Michel Houellebecq contests this separation. He writes novels about this environment that are popular, acclaimed and polemical. He uncovers Foucauldian discourses of power and control, including those of race and religion and emphasises the tension between them. These works incite critiques and debates due to their supposed stereotyping, racism, and Islamophobia. In novels such as chosen text Plateforme, he depicts acts of terrorism which resulted in criticisms of scapegoating Arabs. He has also caused controversy outside these novels. He indicates no personal nationalist tendencies, asserting: 'Le devoir par rapport à son pays ça n'existe pas, il faut le dire aux gens, aucun. On est des individus.'[2] Yet, he was taken to court for statements such as 'La religion la plus con, c'est quand même l'islam. Quand on lit le Coran, on est effondré.'[3] This was hailed as inciting racial hatred however Houellebecq won the case, arguing that he has a right to criticise religious doctrine. His trial and texts thus reflect the problem that for contemporary France, issues of race and religion have become intertwined. Through Houellebecq the separation is contested, and a dialogue is unveiled in its place.
[1] Balibar, Etienne and Wallerstein, Immanuel Race, nation, class : ambiguous identities (London : Verso, 1991.)
[2] ('Obligation to your country does not exist, people should know that. We are all individuals.) Idem.
[3] (The most stupid religion is Islam. When you read the Quran you are overwhelmed.' Houellebecq, Michel, quoted in Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2010/11/08/michel-houellebecq-enfin_1437003_3246.html, (accessed 15/04/14)
The Noachic Tradition and the Biblical Dispersal of Mankind: Explaining Amerindian Origins in Sixteenth-Century England
The discovery of America has been seen by some historians as a watershed moment in history, a moment in which Old World knowledge was rendered redundant and obsolete, being eventually replaced with empiricism, rational thought, and the onset of ‘Enlightenment’ thinking. This paper will challenge this vision of a linear progression in European understandings of America by analysing theories of American origins found in early modern print culture. Reconciling the existence of America with the biblical narrative of the dispersal of mankind was a primary concern for Europeans describing the New World in the first century after discovery. From the premise that all mankind was descended from the three sons of Noah, a premise that was undeniable in early modern Christian thought, a variety of theories developed that attempted to explain how the Amerindians had come to be on an unknown continent and, crucially, how they could be connected to the peoples of the oikoumene. These theories could be based on Old World knowledge, derived from scripture, such as identifying the natives of the New World as descendants of King Solomon, or innovative, taking into account the empirical evidence found in the New World, such as the idea that the people of America had crossed to the continent via a land mass from Asia. I will explore, therefore, how explanations of Amerindian origins highlight an inherent tension in early European descriptions of America; the power of the old and the pull of the new. I will argue, through analysing theories of Amerindian origins, that the reception of America into European thought was a complex mix of Old World retention and New World innovation, rather than a neat linear process of new ideas replacing old.
Miguel Torres García (Human Geography, University of Manchester)
Assembling and disassembling urban religious practice in 18th-century Seville
At the beginning of the 18th century the city of Seville, Spain, envisaged a gloomy outlook, having lost the monopoly of Indian trade, and never having fully recovered from the 1649 plague and its dire consequences. A shrinking population withdrew into an ensemble of parochial spaces and exacerbated religious practice as a number of natural disasters ensued, culminating on 1755 Lisbon Earthquake which strongly affected its economy and built fabric. The earthquake marked a turning point in the development of enlightened ideals; shortly after, reforms were devised for the city within a wider context of liberal logics inception into Spanish territory. A great deal of the reforms fostered by the new progressive political elite focused on removing religious referents and re-classifying urban space socially and functionally, thus de- and re-territorialising it according to rationalist ideals. Their initiatives mirrored those of the Catholic Church to a great extent, substituting an old set of socio-spatial boundaries by a new one, and devising alternative modes of performance in order to completely reshape the public sphere. The enlightened experiment failed in Seville and Spain, and its proponents fell into dishonour and prosecution.
This paper characterises Seville’s urban space during the times of deep religiosity caused by pessimism and despair, describing how practical and performative constructions were targeted and dismantled by the enlightened. It also considers their initiatives as alternative means of control, and the overall confrontation as a power struggle largely fought in a symbolic arena with a translation over actual urban space. Enlightened Despotism failed precisely because of its inherent refusal to engage the base population in their socio-spatial project; this setback would have an effect in further socio-economic lagging in Seville and Spain at large.
Ashley Scott-Harris (French, Queen's University Belfast)
When contemporary authors discuss religion in a secular state: French novelist Michel Houellebecq versus Islam
The case of French laÏcité (secularism) does not imply the absence of the sacred in public life, but rather, as Etienne Balibar has argued, the 'sacralisation of the state'.[1] Issues of migration and displacement have ensued for Muslims who are marginalised in the War on Terror age, for example through the official banning of the full veil. It appears ironic that Islamic practice is threatening to France, a secular state with a non-practicing Catholic majority. However, there is a tension between the secular state and the religious, principally Arab Muslim, citizens. My paper will explore how race and religion have become to appear synonymous in French society. Indeed, the 'sacralised' state opposes Islamic expression alongside Arab immigration and multiculturalism. I will discuss how author Michel Houellebecq contests this separation. He writes novels about this environment that are popular, acclaimed and polemical. He uncovers Foucauldian discourses of power and control, including those of race and religion and emphasises the tension between them. These works incite critiques and debates due to their supposed stereotyping, racism, and Islamophobia. In novels such as chosen text Plateforme, he depicts acts of terrorism which resulted in criticisms of scapegoating Arabs. He has also caused controversy outside these novels. He indicates no personal nationalist tendencies, asserting: 'Le devoir par rapport à son pays ça n'existe pas, il faut le dire aux gens, aucun. On est des individus.'[2] Yet, he was taken to court for statements such as 'La religion la plus con, c'est quand même l'islam. Quand on lit le Coran, on est effondré.'[3] This was hailed as inciting racial hatred however Houellebecq won the case, arguing that he has a right to criticise religious doctrine. His trial and texts thus reflect the problem that for contemporary France, issues of race and religion have become intertwined. Through Houellebecq the separation is contested, and a dialogue is unveiled in its place.
[1] Balibar, Etienne and Wallerstein, Immanuel Race, nation, class : ambiguous identities (London : Verso, 1991.)
[2] ('Obligation to your country does not exist, people should know that. We are all individuals.) Idem.
[3] (The most stupid religion is Islam. When you read the Quran you are overwhelmed.' Houellebecq, Michel, quoted in Le Monde, http://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2010/11/08/michel-houellebecq-enfin_1437003_3246.html, (accessed 15/04/14)